The gap between theory and practice in nursing Education in Lebanon: A study of the Perception of Nursing Educators and Studnets

The ophthalmoscope is a fundamental diagnostic tool in ophthalmology, enabling detailed examination of the retina, optic nerve, and ocular vasculature. Since its invention by Hermann von Helmholtz in 1851, the ophthalmoscope has undergone continuous advancements, significantly improving its diagnostic capabilities, portability, and accessibility. Initially developed as a basic device for direct retinal visualization, modern ophthalmoscopes now integrate digital imaging, artificial intelligence (AI), optical coherence tomography (OCT), and telemedicine technologies, allowing for more precise and automated disease detection (Spaide & Curcio, 2011; Keane & Sadda, 2012). Despite these innovations, challenges such as algorithmic biases in AI diagnostics, cost barriers in low-resource settings, and regulatory complexities remain underexplored (Ting et al., 2017; Abramoff et al., 2016). This review not only traces the historical development of ophthalmoscopy but also examines these pressing issues, highlighting research gaps and future directions. A comparative analysis of different imaging modalities, the limitations of AI, cost-effectiveness, and clinical validation requirements is also discussed to provide a comprehensive perspective on the field's evolution and future trends.